Private and Public Spheres in Sociology

Private and Public Spheres in Sociology Within sociology, public and private spheres are thought of as two distinct realms in which people operate on a daily basis. The basic distinction between them is that the public sphere is the realm of politics where strangers come together to engage in the free exchange of ideas, and is open to everyone, whereas the private sphere is a smaller, typically enclosed realm (like a home) that is only open to those who have permission to enter it. Origins of the Concept The concept of distinct public and private spheres can be traced back to the ancient Greeks, who defined the public as the political realm where the direction of society and its rules and laws were debated and decided upon, and the private as the realm of the family and economic relations. However, how we define the distinction within sociology has changed over time. Within sociology how we define the private and public spheres is largely due to the work of the German sociologist Jà ¼rgen Habermas. A student of critical theory and the Frankfurt School, he published a book in 1962,  The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, that is considered the key text on the matter. Public Sphere According to Habermas, the public sphere, as a place where the free exchange of ideas and debate happens, is the cornerstone of democracy. It is, he wrote, made up of private people gathered together as a public and articulating the needs of society with the state. From this public sphere grows a public authority that dictates the values, ideals, and goals of a given society. The will of the people is expressed within it and emerges out of it. As such, a public sphere must have no regard for the  status  of the participants, be focused on common concerns, and be inclusiveall can participate. In his book, Habermas argues that the public sphere actually took shape within the private sphere, as the practice of discussing literature, philosophy, and politics among family and guests became a common practice. These practices then left the private sphere and effectively created a public sphere when men started engaging in them outside of the home. In 18th Century Europe, the spread of coffeehouses across the continent and Britain created a place where the Western public sphere first took shape in modern time. There, men engaged in discussions of politics and markets, and much of what we know today as laws of property, trade, and the ideals of democracy were crafted in those spaces. Private Sphere On the flip side, the private sphere is the realm of family and home life that is, in theory, free of the influence of government and other social institutions. In this realm, ones responsibility is to oneself and the other members of ones household, and work and exchange can take place within the home in a way that is separate from the economy of the greater society. However, the boundary between the public and private sphere is not fixed but is flexible and permeable, and is always fluctuating and evolving. Its important to note that women were almost uniformly excluded from participating in the public sphere when it first emerged, and so the private sphere, the home, was considered the womans realm. This is why, historically, women had to fight for the right to vote in order to participate in politics, and why gender stereotypes about women belonging in the home linger today. Historically within the U.S. people of color and others perceived as different or deviant have been excluded from participating in the public sphere too. Though progress in terms of inclusion has been made over time, we see the lingering effects of historical exclusion in the over-representation of white men in the U.S. congress. Updated  by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

Fascinating Facts About Centipedes

Fascinating Facts About Centipedes Centipedes (one hundred legs in Latin) are Arthropods, members of an invertebrate class that includes insects, spiders, and crustaceans. All centipedes belong to the class Chilopoda, which includes about 3,300 different species. They are found on every continent except Antarctica, and they have the greatest diversity in shape and configuration in warm and tropical environments. Most centipedes are adapted to burrowing and live in soil or leaf litter, under the bark of trees or beneath stones. Centipede bodies include six head segments (three of which are mouthparts), a pair of poisonous maxillipeds (foot jaws), a variously numbered series of trunk leg-bearing segments, and two genital segments. Their heads have two antennae and a varying number of paired compound eyes (called ocelli). Some cave-dwelling species are blind. Each legged segment is made up of an upper and lower shield covered by a cuticle and separated from the next segment by a flexible membrane. Centipedes periodically shed their cuticle, which allows them to grow. Their body length ranges from 4 to 300 millimeters (.16–12 inches), with most species measuring between 10 and 100 mm (.4–4 in). Centipedes Never Have 100 Legs Though their common name means one hundred legs, centipedes can have significantly more or less than 100 legs- but never 100. Depending on the species, a centipede can have as few as 15 pairs of legs or as many as 191 pairs. Regardless of the species, centipedes always have an odd number of leg pairs, so they never have exactly 100 legs (because 50 is an even number). The easiest way to differentiate centipedes and millipedes  is as follows: Millipedes have two pairs of legs on most body segments, but centipedes always have a single pair of legs per segment. Not sure what youve found? Just count how many pairs of legs are on a segment. The Number of Legs Changes Throughout Their Lives Should a centipede find itself in the grip of a bird or other predator, it can often escape by sacrificing a few legs. The bird is left with a beak full of legs, and the clever centipede makes a fast escape on those that remain. Since centipedes continue to molt as adults, they can usually repair the damage by simply regenerating legs. If you find a centipede with a few legs that are shorter than the others, it is likely in the process of recovering from a predator attack. Though many centipedes hatch from their eggs with a full complement of leg pairs, certain kinds of Chilopods start life with fewer legs than their parents. Stone centipedes (order Lithobiomorpha) and house centipedes (order Scutigeromorpha) start out with as few as 14 legs but add pairs with each successive molt until they reach adulthood. The common house centipede can live as long as five to six years, so thats a lot of legs. Centipedes Are Carnivorous Hunters Though some occasionally scavenge a meal, centipedes are primarily hunters. Smaller centipedes catch other invertebrates, including insects, mollusks, annelids, and even other centipedes. The larger tropical species can consume frogs and small birds. The centipede usually wraps itself around the prey and waits for the venom to take effect before consuming its meal. A centipedes first set of legs are venomous fangs, which they use to inject paralyzing venom from a gland into prey. These special appendages are known as forcipules and are unique to centipedes. Large poison claws partially cover the mouthparts and form part of the feeding apparatus. The last pair of legs are not used for locomotion either but vary in use by species, some for defensive or sensory functions, or prey apprehension, and some for courtship. People Keep Centipedes as Pets Although there are centipede breeders, most centipedes sold in the pet trade are wild-caught. The most commonly sold for pets and zoological displays are giant centipedes from the Scolopendra genus. Pet centipedes are kept in terrariums, with a large surface area, minimum 60 centimeters (24 inches) square for larger species. They require a built substrate of soil and coconut fiber for burrowing, and they can be fed pre-killed crickets, cockroaches, and mealworms weekly or biweekly. They always need a shallow dish of water. Centipedes are aggressive, venomous, and potentially dangerous for humans, especially children. Centipede bites can cause skin damage, bruising, blisters, inflammation, and gangrene. The enclosures should be escape proof, and although centipedes cant climb smooth glass or acrylic, dont provide them a way to climb to reach the lid. They required a minimum humidity of 70 percent; rainforest species need more. Appropriate ventilation can be provided with a grid cover and small holes on the side of the terrarium, but be sure the holes are too small for the centipede to crawl through. Temperate species like it between 20 and 25 C (68–72 F), tropical between 25 and 28 C (77–82.4 F). Dont worry if you dont see your pet centipede out during the day: Centipedes are night creatures and do their hunting after dark. Living With a Centipede Compared to most arthropods, centipedes are relatively long-lived. It is not unusual for a centipede to live for two to three years, and some survive longer than five years. Centipedes continue to molt and grow as adults, unlike insects, which complete their growth when they reach adulthood. You probably wouldnt expect a centipede to be a good mother, but a surprising number of them dote on their offspring. Female soil centipedes (Geophilomorpha) and tropical centipedes (Scolopendromorpha) lay an egg mass in an underground burrow. The mother wraps her body around the eggs, and remains with them until they hatch, protecting them from harm. With the exception of the slow-moving soil centipedes, which are built to burrow, Chilopods can run fast. A centipedes body is suspended in a cradle of long legs. When those legs start moving, this gives the centipede more maneuverability over and around obstacles, as it flees predators or chases prey. The tergites- the dorsal surface of the body segments- may also be modified to keep the body from swaying while in motion. Centipedes Prefer Dark and Moist Environments Arthropods often have a waxy coating on the cuticle to help prevent water loss, but centipedes lack this waterproofing. Most centipedes live in dark, moist environments, like under leaf litter or in damp, rotting wood. Those that inhabit deserts or other arid environments often modify their behavior to minimize the risk of dehydration. They may delay activity until seasonal rains arrive, or when the humidity rises, for example, and diapause during the hottest, driest spells. Sources Capinera, John L. Encyclopedia of Entomology. 2nd ed. Berlin: Springer Science Business Media, 2008. Print.Chiariello, Thiago M. Centipede Care and Husbandry. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine 24.3 (2015): 326-32. Print.Edgecombe, Gregory D., and Gonzalo Giribet. Evolutionary Biology of Centipedes (Myriapoda: Chilopoda). Annual Review of Entomology 52.1 (2007): 151-70. Print.Triplehorn, Charles A., and Norman F. Johnson. Borror and Delongs Introduction to the Study of Insects. 7th ed. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2004. Print.Undheim, Eivind A. B., and Glenn F. King. On the Venom System of Centipedes (Chilopoda), a Neglected Group of Venomous Animals. Toxicon 57.4 (2011): 512-24. Print.

Taxation Law According to ITAA 1997 and ITAA 1936 CGT Speech or Presentation

Taxation Law According to ITAA 1997 and ITAA 1936 CGT - Speech or Presentation Example Hence these shares would be treated as if acquired by Les for $ 20,000, their market value on 1.4.2004, the date of his father’s death and not the $ 15,000 originally paid by his father on 10 August 2001. 7. Block of land: The block of land was purchased on 1 March 2000 for $ 130,000 and sold on 20 June 2010 for 150,000 resulting in a net CGT of 20,000 (H). Although the settlement proceeds were received on 10 August 2010 in the next financial year they would be taxable as on 30 June 2010 as the asset is considered sold or disposed off in the year the taxpayer loses its ownership. 8. Dividend income from certain shares was $ 5,200 with the imputation credits being $ 2,229. Here the taxpayer is eligible as a small shareholder as his imputation or franking credits are less than $ 5,000. Hence, net taxable income is $ 5,200 - $ 2,229 = $ 2971 (I) Under the dividend reinvestment the shareholder can choose to receive newly issued shares instead of divident. Such a plan is treated as if the shareholder received the actual dividend and then used the money to buy shares. The dividend is taxed like any other dividend (including with any  dividend imputation), and the shares are taken to be acquired for the cash one didnt receive. Dividend imputation is a corporate tax under which some or all of the share paid by the corporate may be attributed or ‘imputed’ to the shareholder by giving him tax credits so as to reduce the tax burden and avoid ‘double taxation’. These credits are called franking credits which the company gives to the shareholder at the time of paying dividend. Under dividend imputation small shareholders are exempt upto $ 5000 and franking credits are fully refundable. An eligible shareholder receiving a franked dividend declares the cash amount plus the franking credit as income, and is credited with the franking credit against their